Isaac Abrams

Visual Cultural History of Japan, Mizenko

5/10/17

A Look Into the History and Globalization of Sushi

            I wanted to take a look into the deep history that sushi has and try to find the point that it globalized to America to become what we know it as today. I don’t have a huge history with Japanese Cuisine, but after getting hooked on any and every program that Chef David Chang was in, my interest in the food culture of japan grew. Living in Connecticut didn’t give me many options for exploration into this interest, but my proximity to NYC allowed me to experience some very fine sushi, by American standards. After these excursions began, my grandmother, a very well-traveled lady, told me that what I was eating was incomparable to the sushi she had eaten in Japan in the 70's. So I set myself up on the path to study abroad and become learned in a culture I was tragically unfamiliar with. This project is the culmination of my cuisine-based passion and all that I have learned so far.

            Japan has always, for the most part, been a fishy diet country, probably due to it being surrounded on all sides by water… Much like the Europeans with herring, the ancient Japanese would pickle or salt their fish to preserve it for long periods of time. Without refrigeration technology, the people of Southeast Asia needed a way to prevent their fish from rotting before they could enjoy it. Thus, in what is estimated to be the 3rd-5th century BC in Southeast Asia, the character for pickled fish with salt, si 鮨, showed up in the Chinese dictionary. Soon-ish after in approx. 2nd century AD, the character for pickled fish with salt and rice, sa 鮓, was found in the Chinese dictionary. Together, this is the foundation of what we know today as Nare-Sushi.

A modern pic of Nare-Sushi

            Nare-sushi was, as you can see, pretty gross looking, and, as you might imagine, pretty awful smelling too. Nare-sushi was made by gutting the fish, usually carp, rubbing it in salt, and pickling it in a barrel made of wood for a few months. After a while, they would take the fish out, remove the salt, and stuff the insides with rice. The rice-stuffed fish would then be packed tightly together under heavy stones. As rice ferments, it releases lactic acid bacilli, and when this reacts with the salt from the first step, the bacterial growth in fish is stalled. This process is similar to pickling and is the reason why sushi kitchens are called ‘tsuke-ba’, or pickling place.  What distinguishes Nare-sushi from the other ancient forms of sushi is that after the process is complete, about a year later, the rice is scraped off and only the fish is eaten. This pickling practice was most likely brought to Japan during the ninth century as Buddhism spread from China. The practice died out in China when northern nomadic tribes invaded the area. The oldest form of Nare-sushi is known as Funa-zushi which is derived from the golden carp known as Funa that are caught in Japan’s largest freshwater lake, Lake Biwa. Since it took so long for the fish to ferment, Funa-zushi was only available to the wealthy upper class from the 9^th to 14^th centuries. 

A diagram of Funa-Zushi

            Between the 14^th and 15^th century, Japan had fallen in the middle of a civil war, and the time it took to ferment the fish had to be reduced. Coincidentally, the vinegar business in Japan had just taken off during the 13^th century, and the locals had begun to appreciate the taste of sourness. This, combined with the urgency that war demands, created a new form of sushi, known as Han-Nare Sushi, or Mama-Nare Sushi. Instead of a year of fermentation, the barrels would be opened after a few weeks, and the rice would be eaten with the fish rather than be discarded. This was made possible by the influx of positive preference toward the vinegar-y taste.

            Some historical context is needed for the next section of sushi. In 1606, Tokugawa Ieyasu, a Shogun dictator, moved from Kyoto to Edo. The city of Edo transformed into a modern city in what seems to be overnight. This was jump started in part by the rising merchant class, and the nightlife scene becoming quite popular. Edo became one of the largest cities, so business flocked in. By the mid-1700's, sushi makers would ferment the fish by placing a layer of cooked rice that was seasoned with rice vinegar underneath cured or cooked fish. This combination was then pressed under a wooden box for up to a few days. This fish was not raw, however, and had to be pickled, cured or cooked. This form of sushi was adopted by many prefectures, and each had their own style of box-pressed sushi, or Haya-Nare sushi. For example, in Nara, people would use persimmon leaves to wrap the sushi, while in Toyama, they would use bamboo leaves. 

The Sushi carts in Edo

            In 1824 the man who is often thought of as the father of modern sushi, Hanaya Yohei, opened the first sushi stall in the Ryogoku district in Edo. Ryogoku is located on the banks of the Sumida River, and this stall was cleverly located on one of the two bridges crossing the river. Yohei took advantage of his location for more than just marketing, he would serve fish that was fresh from the bay. His process was as follows: Hanaya would add vinegar and salt to freshly cooked rice, let it sit for a few minutes, and then in a hand-pressed fashion, would top a ball of his sushi rice with a thin slice of raw fish. Because the fish was so fresh, there was no need for fermentation or preservation, and Sushi could be made in a matter of minutes rather than days. Yohei’s Nigiri Sushi, or finger sushi, became the new standard for sushi preparation. By 1923, hundreds of sushi carts were seen around Edo, as you can see in the above Ukiyo-e. If you know your Japanese history, 1923 was also the year that the Great Kanto Earthquake devastated what was now known as Tokyo. This tragedy was a blessing for those who owned sushi carts. Since so many buildings were destroyed, cart owners could afford cheap land in Tokyo and most of sushi creation moved indoors to restaurants known as Sushi-ya.

Hanaya Yohei and his restaurant

            The globalization of sushi to America is earliest mentioned in the book Japanese Interiors where it mentions that “Domestics served us with tea and sushi or rice sandwiches.” Although this is as culturally insensitive as Beato’s work, this book is the first mention of sushi in America and gives us a good look into where the globalization began.  During an influx of Japanese immigration following the Meiji restoration, sushi was first served in the early 1900’s. The first sushi restaurant reportedly opened in 1906 in the Little Tokyo district of Los Angeles. Popularity of Japanese food peaked ca. 1905 when it was served at Japanese-themed social gatherings. According to a food historian the earliest published mention of sushi eaten by an American was in 1904 in the Los Angeles Herald about a luncheon served in Santa Monica. Several years later, anti-Japanese nationalism caused a decline in the acceptance of this cuisine. This was furthered by World War II, and most Japanese-American restaurants on the West Coast were force to close or sell of their businesses.

Unlike other “ethnic foods” in America, sushi was not an inexpensive lunch food. In part because of its celebrated appearance, Japanese food was always viewed as a fussy haute meal, and this slowed its national acceptance. The images and uses of tuna in the US slowed wide adoption even further. Sushi tuna was a deep red, served straight from the ocean, while Americans were used to the white clumpy tuna-fish that was used in sandwiches. This attitude began to change when the ‘fresh ingredient movement’ emerged in Southern California in the 60's. Because of sushi’s preparation of fresh ingredients, it fit the thin ideal of beauty that was at the forefront of the diet craze. Sushi met every standard for being healthful and light, and above all it was seen as a diet food without a negative social implication. Due to these changing perceptions of beauty, sushi restaurants opened across the US. From its initial appeal to Japanese executives, sushi had begun to attract the upper percent class by appealing to the diet-conscious. And with this attraction came widespread acceptance that stretched into even the least healthy markets of America. 

A fan painted by Hiroshige

After my research I am left with a few questions, primarily toward that of the future of sushi. As we can see, sushi has evolved many times over the course of history, but its current form shows that, in fact, culture would change to fit it. With the diet craze of the 60s hitting southern California, Sushi and its fresh ingredients offered a good looking option to those used to tofu and kale. The California roll, a sushi roll butchered with avocado and fake crab, is an excellent example of sushi’s ability to adapt to the dietary habits of its consumers. But sushi isn’t all modern and adaptable, some dishes in Japan like Ochazuke still use the funa-sushi style of sushi, showing that it can still be a classic historical dish. But since the Americans did get a hold of it, repulsive things like using brown rice and making the rolls too big (look up: Sushirrito) to eat in one bite still are popularized in modern cuisine. The evolution of the visual aspect of Sushi is also interesting, with American restaurants putting things such as plastic grass in the sushi tray. To adapt to the colorful ideals of American eyes, sushi chefs do things such as the rainbow roll to draw in customers looking to post it to their Instagram. If I were to do further research, I would want to look into the visual appeal of sushi to consumers in other countries.

The Rainbow Roll

References:

Ashcraft, Brian, Alex Walker, and Jason Schreier. "The Man Who Invented Sushi." Kotaku Australia. N.p., 06 Feb. 2015. Web. 10 May 2017.

Avey, Tori. "Discover the History of Sushi." PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, 05 Sept. 2012. Web. 10 May 2017.

Carroll, Walter F. "SUSHI: Globalization through food culture: towards a study of global food networks." (2009).

Cooper, Hannah. "The Truth About American Sushi No One Wants to Hear." Spoon University. N.p., 16 July 2015. Web. 10 May 2017.

Dare, Stephen. "Primitive Funa-Zushi. The Horrid Roots of Modern Sushi." Primitive Funa-Zushi. The Horrid Roots of Modern Sushi | Metro Jacksonville. Metrojacksonville, 10 May 2016. Web. 10 May 2017.

"Sushi - Japanese Food Recipes." Ukiyo-e Pictures of Sushi - Japanese Food Recipes. SimpleLifeInc, n.d. Web. 10 May 2017.

"Sushi: It’s More than Just Raw Fish." The Japanese Culture Club. Pennridge High School, 26 Aug. 2012. Web. 10 May 2017.

Wei, Clarissa. "An Illustrated History of Sushi." First We Feast. First We Feast, 20 Oct. 2016. Web. 10 May 2017.