Isaac
Abrams
Visual
Cultural History of Japan, Mizenko
5/10/17
A Look Into the History and Globalization
of Sushi
I
wanted to take a look into the deep history that sushi has and try to find the
point that it globalized to America to become what we know it as today. I don’t
have a huge history with Japanese Cuisine, but after getting hooked on any and
every program that Chef David Chang was in, my interest in the food culture of
japan grew. Living in Connecticut didn’t give me many options for exploration
into this interest, but my proximity to NYC allowed me to experience some very
fine sushi, by American standards. After these excursions began, my
grandmother, a very well-traveled lady, told me that what I was eating was
incomparable to the sushi she had eaten in Japan in the 70's. So I set myself up
on the path to study abroad and become learned in a culture I was tragically
unfamiliar with. This project is the culmination of my cuisine-based passion
and all that I have learned so far.
Japan
has always, for the most part, been a fishy diet country, probably due to it
being surrounded on all sides by water… Much like the Europeans with herring,
the ancient Japanese would pickle or salt their fish to preserve it for long periods
of time. Without
refrigeration technology, the people of Southeast Asia needed a way to prevent
their fish from rotting before they could enjoy it. Thus, in what is estimated
to be the 3rd-5th century BC in Southeast Asia, the character for pickled fish
with salt, si 鮨, showed up in the Chinese
dictionary. Soon-ish after in approx. 2nd century AD, the character for pickled
fish with salt and rice, sa 鮓, was found in the Chinese
dictionary. Together, this is the foundation of what we know today as
Nare-Sushi.
 |
| A modern pic of Nare-Sushi |
Nare-sushi
was, as you can see, pretty gross looking, and, as you might imagine, pretty
awful smelling too. Nare-sushi was made by gutting the fish, usually carp, rubbing
it in salt, and pickling it in a barrel made of wood for a few months. After a
while, they would take the fish out, remove the salt, and stuff the insides
with rice. The rice-stuffed fish would then be packed tightly together under
heavy stones. As rice ferments, it releases lactic acid bacilli, and when this
reacts with the salt from the first step, the bacterial growth in fish is
stalled. This process is similar to pickling and is the reason why sushi
kitchens are called ‘tsuke-ba’, or pickling place. What distinguishes Nare-sushi from the other
ancient forms of sushi is that after the process is complete, about a year
later, the rice is scraped off and only the fish is eaten. This pickling
practice was most likely brought to Japan during the ninth century as Buddhism
spread from China. The practice died out in China when northern nomadic tribes
invaded the area. The oldest form of Nare-sushi is known as Funa-zushi which is
derived from the golden carp known as Funa that are caught in Japan’s largest
freshwater lake, Lake Biwa. Since it took so long for the fish to ferment,
Funa-zushi was only available to the wealthy upper class from the 9th
to 14th centuries.
 |
| A diagram of Funa-Zushi |
Between
the 14th and 15th century, Japan had fallen in the middle
of a civil war, and the time it took to ferment the fish had to be reduced. Coincidentally,
the vinegar business in Japan had just taken off during the 13th
century, and the locals had begun to appreciate the taste of sourness. This,
combined with the urgency that war demands, created a new form of sushi, known
as Han-Nare Sushi, or Mama-Nare Sushi. Instead of a year of fermentation, the
barrels would be opened after a few weeks, and the rice would be eaten with the
fish rather than be discarded. This was made possible by the influx of positive
preference toward the vinegar-y taste.
Some
historical context is needed for the next section of sushi. In 1606, Tokugawa
Ieyasu, a Shogun dictator, moved from Kyoto to Edo. The city of Edo transformed
into a modern city in what seems to be overnight. This was jump started in part
by the rising merchant class, and the nightlife scene becoming quite popular.
Edo became one of the largest cities, so business flocked in. By the mid-1700's,
sushi makers would ferment the fish by placing a layer of cooked rice that was
seasoned with rice vinegar underneath cured or cooked fish. This combination
was then pressed under a wooden box for up to a few days. This fish was not
raw, however, and had to be pickled, cured or cooked. This form of sushi was adopted
by many prefectures, and each had their own style of box-pressed sushi, or
Haya-Nare sushi. For example, in Nara, people would use persimmon leaves to
wrap the sushi, while in Toyama, they would use bamboo leaves.
 |
| The Sushi carts in Edo |
In 1824 the man who is often thought of as the father of modern sushi, Hanaya Yohei, opened the first sushi stall in the Ryogoku district in Edo. Ryogoku is located on the banks of the Sumida River, and this stall was cleverly located on one of the two bridges crossing the river. Yohei took advantage of his location for more than just marketing, he would serve fish that was fresh from the bay. His process was as follows: Hanaya would add vinegar and salt to freshly cooked rice, let it sit for a few minutes, and then in a hand-pressed fashion, would top a ball of his sushi rice with a thin slice of raw fish. Because the fish was so fresh, there was no need for fermentation or preservation, and Sushi could be made in a matter of minutes rather than days. Yohei’s Nigiri Sushi, or finger sushi, became the new standard for sushi preparation. By 1923, hundreds of sushi carts were seen around Edo, as you can see in the above Ukiyo-e. If you know your Japanese history, 1923 was also the year that the Great Kanto Earthquake devastated what was now known as Tokyo. This tragedy was a blessing for those who owned sushi carts. Since so many buildings were destroyed, cart owners could afford cheap land in Tokyo and most of sushi creation moved indoors to restaurants known as Sushi-ya.
 |
| Hanaya Yohei and his restaurant |
The
globalization of sushi to America is earliest mentioned in the book Japanese Interiors where it mentions
that “Domestics served us with tea and sushi or rice sandwiches.” Although this
is as culturally insensitive as Beato’s work, this book is the first mention of
sushi in America and gives us a good look into where the globalization began. During an influx of Japanese immigration
following the Meiji restoration, sushi was first served in the early 1900’s. The
first sushi restaurant reportedly opened in 1906 in the Little Tokyo district
of Los Angeles. Popularity of Japanese food peaked ca. 1905 when it was served
at Japanese-themed social gatherings. According to a food historian the earliest
published mention of sushi eaten by an American was in 1904 in the Los Angeles
Herald about a luncheon served in Santa Monica. Several years later, anti-Japanese
nationalism caused a decline in the acceptance of this cuisine. This was furthered
by World War II, and most Japanese-American restaurants on the West Coast were
force to close or sell of their businesses.
Unlike other
“ethnic foods” in America, sushi was not an inexpensive lunch food. In part because
of its celebrated appearance, Japanese food was always viewed as a fussy haute
meal, and this slowed its national acceptance. The images and uses of tuna in
the US slowed wide adoption even further. Sushi tuna was a deep red, served
straight from the ocean, while Americans were used to the white clumpy
tuna-fish that was used in sandwiches. This attitude began to change when the ‘fresh
ingredient movement’ emerged in Southern California in the 60's. Because of
sushi’s preparation of fresh ingredients, it fit the thin ideal of beauty that
was at the forefront of the diet craze. Sushi met every standard for being
healthful and light, and above all it was seen as a diet food without a
negative social implication. Due to these changing perceptions of beauty, sushi
restaurants opened across the US. From its initial appeal to Japanese
executives, sushi had begun to attract the upper percent class by appealing to
the diet-conscious. And with this attraction came widespread acceptance that
stretched into even the least healthy markets of America.
 |
| A fan painted by Hiroshige |
After my
research I am left with a few questions, primarily toward that of the future of
sushi. As we can see, sushi has evolved many times over the course of history, but
its current form shows that, in fact, culture would change to fit it. With the
diet craze of the 60s hitting southern California, Sushi and its fresh
ingredients offered a good looking option to those used to tofu and kale. The California
roll, a sushi roll butchered with avocado and fake crab, is an excellent
example of sushi’s ability to adapt to the dietary habits of its consumers. But
sushi isn’t all modern and adaptable, some dishes in Japan like Ochazuke still
use the funa-sushi style of sushi, showing that it can still be a classic
historical dish. But since the Americans did get a hold of it, repulsive things
like using brown rice and making the rolls too big (look up: Sushirrito) to eat
in one bite still are popularized in modern cuisine. The evolution of the
visual aspect of Sushi is also interesting, with American restaurants putting things
such as plastic grass in the sushi tray. To adapt to the colorful ideals of
American eyes, sushi chefs do things such as the rainbow roll to draw in
customers looking to post it to their Instagram. If I were to do further
research, I would want to look into the visual appeal of sushi to consumers in
other countries.
 |
| The Rainbow Roll |
References:
Ashcraft,
Brian, Alex Walker, and Jason Schreier. "The Man Who Invented Sushi."
Kotaku Australia. N.p., 06 Feb. 2015. Web. 10 May 2017.
Avey,
Tori. "Discover the History of Sushi." PBS. Public Broadcasting
Service, 05 Sept. 2012. Web. 10 May 2017.
Carroll, Walter F. "SUSHI: Globalization
through food culture: towards a study of global food networks." (2009).
Cooper,
Hannah. "The Truth About American Sushi No One Wants to Hear." Spoon
University. N.p., 16 July 2015. Web. 10 May 2017.
Dare,
Stephen. "Primitive Funa-Zushi. The Horrid Roots of Modern Sushi."
Primitive Funa-Zushi. The Horrid Roots of Modern Sushi | Metro Jacksonville.
Metrojacksonville, 10 May 2016. Web. 10 May 2017.
"Sushi
- Japanese Food Recipes." Ukiyo-e Pictures of Sushi - Japanese Food
Recipes. SimpleLifeInc, n.d. Web. 10 May 2017.
"Sushi:
It’s More than Just Raw Fish." The Japanese Culture Club. Pennridge High
School, 26 Aug. 2012. Web. 10 May 2017.
Wei,
Clarissa. "An Illustrated History of Sushi." First We Feast. First We
Feast, 20 Oct. 2016. Web. 10 May 2017.
